Ocean acidification weakens the structural integrity of coralline algae

The uptake of anthropogenic emission of carbon dioxide is resulting in a lowering of the carbonate saturation state and a drop in ocean pH. Understanding how marine calcifying organisms such as coralline algae may acclimatize to ocean acidification is important to understand their survival over the coming century. We present the first long-term perturbation experiment on the cold-water coralline algae, which are important marine calcifiers in the benthic ecosystems particularly at the higher latitudes. Lithothamnion glaciale, after three months incubation, continued to calcify even in undersaturated conditions with a significant trend towards lower growth rates with increasing pCO2. However, the major changes in the ultra-structure occur by 589 μatm (i.e. in saturated waters). Finite element models of the algae grown at these heightened levels show an increase in the total strain energy of nearly an order of magnitude and an uneven distribution of the stress inside the skeleton when subjected to similar loads as algae grown at ambient levels. This weakening of the structure is likely to reduce the ability of the alga to resist boring by predators and wave energy with severe consequences to the benthic community structure in the immediate future (50 years).

Effect of ocean acidification and temperature increase on the planktonic foraminifer Neogloboquadrina pachyderma (sinistral)

The present study investigated the effects of ocean acidification and temperature increase on Neogloboquadrina pachyderma (sinistral), the dominant planktonic foraminifer in the Arctic Ocean. Due to the naturally low concentration of CO32− in the Arctic, this foraminifer could be particularly sensitive to the forecast changes in seawater carbonate chemistry. To assess potential responses to ocean acidification and climate change, perturbation experiments were performed on juvenile and adult specimens by manipulating seawater to mimic the present-day carbon dioxide level and a future ocean acidification scenario (end of the century) under controlled (in situ) and elevated temperatures (1 and 4 °C, respectively). Foraminifera mortality was unaffected under all the different experiment treatments. Under low pH, N. pachyderma (s) shell net calcification rates decreased. This decrease was higher (30 %) in the juvenile specimens than decrease observed in the adults (21 %) ones. However, decrease in net calcification was moderated when both, pH decreased and temperature increased simultaneously. When only temperature increased, a net calcification rate for both life stages was not affected. These results show that forecast changes in seawater chemistry would impact calcite production in N. pachyderma (s), possibly leading to a reduction of calcite flux contribution and consequently a decrease in biologic pump efficiency.

Impact of biogeochemical processes and environmental factors on the calcium carbonate saturation state in the Circumpolar Flaw Lead in the Amundsen Gulf, Arctic Ocean

We report on measurements across an annual cycle of carbon dioxide system parameters in the polar mixed layer (PML) of the circumpolar flaw lead in the Amundsen Gulf, Arctic Ocean. From these and other properties (nitrate, S, T) of the PML, we found that biological processes (photosynthesis and respiration) accounted for about 50% of the monthly variations in the carbonate ion concentration, [CO₃²⁻] and Ω, the saturation state of these waters with respect to calcite (Ω_Ca) and aragonite (Ω_Ar). Vertical mixing and salinity changes had equal impacts over the annual cycle. The impact of sea ice meltwater resulted in decreasing Ω values in summer, but most of this change was offset by the Ω increase as a result of CO₂ drawdown during biological photosynthesis.

Impact of rapid sea-ice reduction in the Arctic Ocean on the rate of ocean acidification

The largest pH decline and widespread undersaturation with respect to aragonite in this century due to uptake of anthropogenic carbon dioxide in the Arctic Ocean have been projected. The reductions in pH and aragonite saturation state have been caused primarily by an increase in the concentration of atmospheric carbon dioxide. However, in a previous study, simulations with and without warming showed that these reductions in the Arctic Ocean also advances due to the melting of sea ice caused by global warming. Therefore, future projections of pH and aragonite saturation in the Arctic Ocean will be affected by how rapidly the reduction in sea ice occurs. In this study, the impact of sea-ice reduction rate on projected pH and aragonite saturation state in the Arctic surface waters was investigated. Reductions in pH and aragonite saturation were calculated from the outputs of two versions of an earth system model (ESM) with different sea-ice reduction rates under similar CO2 emission scenarios. The newer model version projects that Arctic summer ice-free condition will be achieved by the year 2040, and the older version predicts ice-free condition by 2090. The Arctic surface water was projected to be undersaturated with respect to aragonite in the annual mean when atmospheric CO2 concentration reached 480 (550) ppm in year 2040 (2048) in new (old) version. At an atmospheric CO2 concentration of 520 ppm, the maximum differences in pH and aragonite saturation state between the two versions were 0.08 and 0.15, respectively. The analysis showed that the decreases in pH and aragonite saturation state due to rapid sea-ice reduction were caused by increases in both CO2 uptake and freshwater input. Thus, the reductions in pH and aragonite saturation state in the Arctic surface waters are significantly affected by the difference in future projections for sea-ice reduction rate. The critical CO2 concentration, at which the Arctic surface waters become undersaturated with respect to aragonite on annual mean bias, would be lower by 70 ppm in the version with the rapid sea-ice reduction.

East Siberian Sea, an Arctic region of very high biogeochemical activity (update)

Shelf seas are among the most active biogeochemical marine environments and the East Siberian Sea is a prime example. This sea is supplied by seawater from both the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans and has a substantial input of river runoff. All of these waters contribute chemical constituents, dissolved and particulate, but of different signatures. Sea ice formation during the winter season and melting in the summer has a major impact on physical as well as biogeochemical conditions. The internal circulation and water mass distribution is significantly influenced by the atmospheric pressure field. The western region is dominated by input of river runoff from the Laptev Sea and an extensive input of terrestrial organic matter. The microbial decay of this organic matter produces carbon dioxide (CO2) that oversaturates all waters from the surface to bottom relative to atmospheric level, even when primary production, inferred from low surface water nutrients, has occurred. The eastern surface waters were under-saturated with respect to CO2 illustrating the dominance of marine primary production. The drawdown of dissolved inorganic carbon equals a primary production of ~0.8 ± 2 mol C m−2, which when multiplied by half the area of the East Siberian Sea, ~500 000 km2, results in an annual primary production of 0.4 (± 1) × 1012 mol C or ~4 (± 10) × 1012 gC. Microbial decay occurs through much of the water column, but dominates at the sediment interface where the majority of organic matter ends up, thus more of the decay products are recycled to the bottom water. High nutrient concentrations and fugacity of CO2 and low oxygen and pH were observed in the bottom waters. Another signature of organic matter decomposition, methane (CH4), was observed in very high but variable concentrations. This is due to its seabed sources of glacial origin or modern production from ancient organic matter, becoming available due to sub-sea permafrost thaw and formation of so-called taliks. The decay of organic matter to CO2 as well as oxidation of CH4 to CO2 contribute to a natural ocean acidification making the saturation state of calcium carbonate low, resulting in under-saturation of all the bottom waters with respect to aragonite and large areas of under-saturation down to 50 % with respect to calcite. Hence, conditions for calcifying organisms are very unfavorable.

Impact of ocean acidification and elevated temperatures on early juveniles of the polar shelled pteropod Limacina helicina: mortality, shell degradation, and shell growth (update)

Due to their aragonitic shell, thecosome pteropods may be particularly vulnerable to ocean acidification driven by anthropogenic CO2 emissions. This applies specifically to species inhabiting Arctic surface waters that are projected to become temporarily and locally undersaturated with respect to aragonite as early as 2016. This study investigated the effects of rising partial pressure of CO2 (pCO2) and elevated temperature on pre-winter juveniles of the polar pteropod Limacina helicina. After a 29 day experiment in September/October 2009 at three different temperatures and under pCO2 scenarios projected for this century, mortality, shell degradation, shell diameter and shell increment were investigated. Temperature and pCO2 had a significant effect on mortality, but temperature was the overriding factor. Shell diameter, shell increment and shell degradation were significantly impacted by pCO2 but not by temperature. Mortality was 46% higher at 8 °C than at in situ temperature (3 °C), and 14% higher at 1100 μatm than at 230 μatm. Shell diameter and increment were reduced by 10 and 12% at 1100 μatm and 230 μatm, respectively, and shell degradation was 41% higher at elevated compared to ambient pCO2. We conclude that pre-winter juveniles will be negatively affected by both rising temperature and pCO2 which may result in a possible decline in abundance of the overwintering population, the basis for next year’s reproduction.

East Siberian Sea, an arctic region of very high biogeochemical activity

Shelf seas are among the most active biogeochemical marine environments and the East Siberian Sea is a prime example. This sea is supplied by seawater from both the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans and has a substantial input of river runoff. All of these waters contribute chemical constituents, dissolved and particulate, but of different signatures. Sea ice formation during the winter season and melting in the summer has a major impact on physical as well as biochemical conditions. The internal circulation and water mass distribution is significantly influenced by the atmospheric pressure field. The western region is dominated by input of river runoff from the Laptev Sea and an extensive input of terrestrial organic matter. The microbial decay of this organic matter produces carbon dioxide (CO2) over-saturating all waters from the surface to the bottom relative to atmospheric values, even if the nutrient concentrations of the surface waters showed recent primary production. The eastern surface waters were under-saturated with respect to CO2 illustrating the dominance of marine primary production. The drawdown of dissolved inorganic carbon equals a primary production of ∼1 mol C m−2, which when multiplied by half the area of the East Siberian Sea, 500 000 km2, results in an annual primary production of 0.5×1012 mol C or 6×1012 gC. Even though microbial decay occurs through much of the water column it dominates at the sediment surface where the majority of organic matter ends up, and most of the decay products are added to the bottom water. High nutrient concentrations and fugacity of CO2 and low oxygen and pH were observed in the bottom waters. Another signature of organic matter decomposition, methane (CH4), was observed in very high but variable concentrations. This is due to its seabed sources of glacial origin or modern production from ancient organic matter, becoming available due to sub-sea permafrost thaw and formation of so-called taliks (layers of thawed sediments within the permafrost body). Riverine transport as well as leakage of groundwater rich in methane from decay in fresh water systems could add to the CH4 shelf water inventory as minor sources. The decay of organic matter to CO2 as well as oxidation of CH4 to CO2 contribute to a natural ocean acidification making the saturation state of calcium carbonate low, resulting in under-saturation of all the bottom waters with respect to aragonite and large areas of under-saturation down to 50% with respect to calcite. Hence, conditions for calcifying organisms are very unfavorable.

Coupling physics, biology and terrestrial runoff to ocean acidification and carbonate mineral suppression in the Pacific-Arctic region

Rising CO2 levels in the atmosphere and ocean have lead to an anthropogenically induced acidification phenomenon in high latitude seas. These areas are projected to become persistently undersaturated with respect to important carbonate minerals as early as mid-century and seasonal aragonite undersaturations have already been observed in surface and shallow subsurface waters over of the continental shelf seas surrounding Alaska. Some calcifying marine organisms, including pteropods, foraminifers, mollusks, and coralline algae that could be susceptible to reduced calcification rates under increasing ocean acidity are keystone species in the Pacific-Arctic region. Recent observations along the only long term time-series in the northern Gulf of Alaska found that the high seasonal and spatial variability of the carbonate parameters are largely controlled by physical circulation and glacial discharge. In general, surface DIC and TA concentrations decreased between May and September due to primary production and dilution from the region’s numerous glacial sources. Conversely, concentrations of DIC and TA increased in the bottom waters of the inner shelf between May and September likely due to a combination of remineralization of exported organic matter and seasonally induced upwelling. Analysis of the calcite and aragonite saturation states (Ω) showed an increase in the surface layer from May to September. However, in the bottom waters over the inner shelf the Ω of calcite and aragonite was suppressed and aragonite undersaturations were observed within 50 m of the surface. In the Bering Sea, prior to sea ice retreat in 2008, calcite and aragonite Ω ranged from 1.3 to 3.2 and 0.8 to 2.0 respectively in the upper 30 m over the shelf. Two inshore stations likely impacted by the outflows of the Yukon and Kuskokwim Rivers showed aragonite undersaturation (0.91 – 0.84) from the surface to the bottom. In summer, DIC concentrations in the upper 30 m were drawn down by primary production and diluted by sea ice melt. At most locations, calcite and aragonite Ω had increased compared to spring. However, beneath the mixed layer (30 – 150 m), DIC concentrations increased between spring and summer likely due to the remineralization of exported organic matter. This increase in DIC caused a suppression of the carbonate mineral Ω near the bottom where calcite and aragonite Ω as low as 1.08 and 0.68, respectively were observed. Biological amplification of ocean acidification effects in subsurface waters could reduce the ability of some calcifying species to produce shells or tests with profound implications for Bering Sea benthic ecosystems, including the commercially valuable crab fishery. In both the northern Gulf of Alaska and the eastern Bering Sea, the observed aragonite undersaturations were directly related to the intrusion of anthropogenic CO2 indicating that these are likely recent occurrences.

Uptake of CO2 by the Arctic Ocean in a changing climate

Carbon system data from five expeditions over the time period 1991 to 2005 in the central Arctic Ocean are evaluated with respect to the partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the surfacewaters. Nearly all waters were under-saturated with values typically below 300 μatm. In the areas occupied during several expeditions the variability is substantial, making it unrealistic to produce a coherent pCO2 map. The potential oceanic uptake of CO2 in the Arctic Ocean is evaluated as the difference in calculated total dissolved inorganic carbon at equilibrium with the atmosphere and that measured. The uptake capacity as computed from the undersaturation of the surface waters, although not homogenous across the separate basins, is on average 13 ± 3 g C m-2 within the surface mixed layer of the central Arctic Ocean. The uptake capacity is dependent on several variables and processes, many likely to change as the Arctic environment responds to different climate forcing. For instance, the projected decrease in summer sea ice cover allow for air – sea equilibrium resulting in an estimated potential increase in CO2 uptake of 1.3 ± 0.3 Tg C yr-1. Other factors influencing the uptake capacity of the surface mixed layer that are discussed in this contribution are changes in the depth of the surface mixed layer, temperature and primary production, all impacting the partial pressure of CO2.

Influence of riverine alkalinity on carbonate species in the Okhotsk Sea

Comparing data set of carbonate species and other hydrographic chemical properties in 1999, 2000 and 2006 in the Okhotsk Sea, we found that salinity-normalized alkalinity in the subsurface water has shown a rate of increase by 2.6 ± 0.1 μmol kg⁻¹ y⁻¹ while the increase in salinity-normalized dissolved inorganic carbon corrected by AOU was almost half of that in alkalinity. Therefore, pH has increased by 0.013 ± 0.001 pH unit y⁻¹ in the subsurface water (26.5 – 27.3 σ ) which is the origin of the North Pacific intermediate water. This increase in pH could be explained by the increase in alkalinity in the Amur River in the last decade, suggesting a possibility that could mitigate one-fifth of recent ocean acidification in the North Pacific.